the most beautiful pics of the taj mahal all about badminton

(CC [2]) Photograph: Arian Zwegers
Mausoleum of the Taj Mahal complex at Agra, Bharat

The Taj Mahal represents the finest and most sophisticated example of Mughal architecture. Its origins prevarication in the moving circumstances of its committee and the culture and history of the Islamic Mughal empire'south rule of big parts of India.

The distraught Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned the monument later the death of his favourite married woman, Mumtaz Mahal on the south bank of the River Yamuna in Agra, India. The Taj Mahal is an extensive complex of buildings and gardens that extends over 22.44 Hectares ^[a] and includes subsidiary tombs, waterworks infrastructure, the small town of 'Taj Ganji' a 'moonlight garden' to the north of the river, but most famously,[[ the white marble mausoleum. Construction began in 1632 CE, (1041 AH) and was completed in 1648 CE (1058 AH). The design was conceived every bit both an earthly replica of the business firm of Mumtaz in paradise and an instrument of propaganda for the emperor.

It is uncertain who designed Taj Mahal; although information technology is known that a big team of designers and craftsmen were responsible, with Jahan himself taking an active role. Ustad Ahmad Lahauri is considered the most likely candidate as the principal designer.^[1]

1 Early History
- 1.one Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal
  - 1.1.1 Early on years and union
  - i.1.two Death of Mumtaz
- 1.2 Structure
- one.iii Fate of Shah Jahan
2 Architecture
- ii.1 Precedents
- ii.ii Concepts, symbolism and interpretations
- 2.3 Architects and craftsmen
- 2.4 Site
  - two.4.i 16th–17th Century Agra
  - 2.4.ii Map
  - 2.4.3 Dimensional organization
- 2.5 Mausoleum (Rauza-i munauwara)
- 2.six Riverfront terrace (Chameli Farsh)
  - 2.6.ane Plinth and terrace
  - 2.half-dozen.ii Jawab and Mosque
- two.vii Garden (Charbagh)
- 2.8 Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)
- 2.9 Forecourt (Jilaukhana)
- 2.10 Bazaar and caravanserai (Taj Ganji)
- two.11 Structures exterior the walls
- two.12 Waterworks
- ii.xiii Moonlight garden (Mahtab Bagh)
3 Notes
4 Citations

Early on History

Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal

Early years and union

An idealised portrait of Shah Jahan (the lord of the world) continuing on the globe

Prince Khurrum Shihab-ud-din Muhammad, later to become Shah Jahan the 5th Mughal emperor of India, was built-in in 1592 in Lahore as the tertiary and favourite son of the emperor Jahangir.^[2] His early years saw him receive a cultured, wide pedagogy and distinguish himself in the martial arts and as a commander of his begetter'southward armies in numerous campaigns ^[b] where he became responsible for about of the territorial gains of his male parent'due south reign.^[iii] Khurrum also demonstrated a precocious talent for edifice, impressing his father at the age of xvi when he congenital his ain quarters inside Babur's Kabul fort and redesigned several buildings within Agra fort.^[4] As a young homo, he was married to ii wives known equally Akbarabadi Mahal (d.1677 CE, 1088 AH), and Kandahari Mahal (b. c1594 CE, c1002 AH), (m.1609 CE, 1018 AH). Beforehand nevertheless, in 1607 CE (1016 AH) Khurrum had been matrimonial to Arjumand Banu Begum, the grand daughter of a Persian noble, who was just fourteen years onetime at the time. She would go the unquestioned love of his life and they were married in 1612 CE (1021 AH). After their wedding celebrations, Khurrum "finding her in advent and graphic symbol elect amidst all the women of the time", gave her the title Mumtaz Mahal Begum (Called one of the Palace).^[v] Past all accounts, Khurrum was so taken with Mumtaz, that he showed little involvement in exercising his polygamous rights with the two before wives, other than dutifully siring a child with each. According to the official court chronicler Qazwini, the relationship with his other wives "had naught more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection, attention and favour which His Majesty had for the Cradle of Excellence [Mumtaz] exceeded by a thou times what he felt for any other."^[half-dozen] ^[7] ^[5]

Khurram's armed forces successes of 1617 CE (1026 AH), against the Lodi in the Deccan secured the southern border of the empire and his grateful father rewarded him with the prestigious title 'Shah Jahan Bahadur' (Lord of the Globe) which finer sealed his inheritance. ^[c] ^[eight] Despite her frequent pregnancies, Mumtaz travelled with Jahan's entourage throughout his earlier armed services campaigns and the subsequent rebellion against his father. Jahan was utterly devoted; she was his abiding companion and trusted confidante and their human relationship was intense. Indeed, the court historians get to unheard of lengths (for the fourth dimension) to document the intimate and erotic relationship the couple enjoyed. In the 19 years after their marriage they had xiv children together. Information technology was quite common for women of noble nascence to commission architecture in the Mughal Empire. Mumtaz devoted some time to a riverside garden in Agra and it may have been her affection for this garden that prompted the eventual form of her monument.^[8]

Death of Mumtaz

Majnun - the paradigm of chaste Muslim beloved, going mad in the wilderness

Mumtaz died in Burhanpur in 1631 CE (1040 AH), subsequently the childbirth of their fourteenth child.^[ix] Characteristically, she had been accompanying her husband whilst he was fighting a entrada in the Deccan Plateau.^[10] Her body was temporarily cached in a garden known every bit Zainabad on the depository financial institution of the Tapti River.^[9] The contemporary courtroom chroniclers paid a considerable degree of attention to Mumtaz Mahal's death and Shah Jahan'due south grief at her demise. In the immediate backwash of her passing the emperor was reportedly comfortless. He was not seen for a week at court and considered abdicating and living his life equally a religious recluse. The courtroom historian Muhammad Amin Qazwini, wrote that before his wife's expiry the emperor's beard had "not more than ten or twelve grey hairs, which he used to pluck out' [and after] turned grey and eventually white"^[11] and that he soon needed glasses considering his eyes deteriorated from abiding weeping. Since Mumtaz had died on Wednesday, all entertainments were banned on that twenty-four hour period. Jahan gave up listening to music, wearing jewellery or rich and colourful clothes and using perfumes for two years. And so concerned were the imperial family that an honorary uncle wrote to say that "if he continued to carelessness himself to his mourning, Mumtaz might call back of giving upwards the joys of Paradise to come up dorsum to earth, this place of misery - and he should also consider the children she had left to his care." The Austrian scholar Ebba Koch notes that Shah Jahan is portrayed every bit becoming like "Majnum, the ultimate lover of Muslim lore, who flees into the desert to pino for his unattainable Layla."^[12]

Jahan's eldest girl, the devoted Jahanara Begum Sahib, gradually brought him out of grief and took the place of Mumtaz at court. Immediately subsequently the burying in Burhanpur, Jahan and the imperial court devoted itself to the planning and design of the mausoleum and funerary garden in Agra.^[12]

Construction

A site was chosen on the banks of the Yamuna River on the southern edge of Agra and was purchased from Raja Jai Singh ^[d] in exchange for 4 mansions in the city. The site "from the point of view of loftiness and pleasantness appeared to exist worthy of the burying of that one who dwells in paradise".^[xiii] In January 1632 CE (1041 AH), Mumtaz's body was moved with great anniversary from Burhanpur to Agra. During the journeying, to curry favour from sky, food, drink and coins were distributed amongst the poor and deserving. Piece of work had already begun on the foundations of the river terrace when the body arrived.^[xiv] ^[xv] A modest domed building was erected over her torso, thought to accept been sited, and now marked, by an enclosure in the western garden virtually the riverfront terrace. The foundations represented the biggest technical challenge to exist overcome past the Mughal builders. In order to support the considerable load resulting from the mausoleum, the sands of the riverbank needed to be stabilised. To this end, wells were sunk and then cased in timber and finally filled with rubble, iron and mortar - essentially acting as augured piles.^[sixteen] After construction of the terrace was completed, piece of work began simultaneously on the remainder of the circuitous. Copse were planted almost immediately to allow them to mature as work progressed.

The initial construction stages were noted by Shah Jahan's chroniclers in their description of the first two 'Urs, the anniversary celebrations in honour of Mumtaz. The first, held on the June 22, 1632 CE (1041 AH), was a tented affair open to all ranks of society and held in the location of what is at present the entrance courtyard (Jilaukhana). Alms were distributed and prayers recited. Past the 2nd Urs, held on May 26, 1633 CE (1042 AH), ^[east] Mumtaz Mahal had been interred in her last resting place, the riverside terrace was finished; as was the plinth of the mausoleum and the tahkhana, a galleried suite of rooms opening to the river and under the terrace.^[17] Information technology was used past the imperial retinue for the celebrations. Peter Mundy, an employee of the British East Bharat visitor and a western eye witness, noted the ongoing structure of the caravanserais and bazaars and that "There is alreadye[sic] about Her Tombe a raile[sic] of gold". To deter theft it was replaced in 1643 CE (1053 AH) with an inlaid marble jali.^[18]

Afterward the second Urs further dating of the progress can exist made from several signatures left by the calligrapher Amanat Khan. The signed frame of the south arch of the domed hall of the mausoleum indicates it was reaching completion in 1638/39 CE (1048/1049 AH). In 1643 CE (1053 AH) the official sources documenting the twelfth Urs give a detailed description of a essentially completed circuitous. Decorative work apparently continued until 1648 CE (1058 AH) when Amanat Khan dated the north arch of the great gate with the inscription "Finished with His help, the Most High".^[19]

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. The buildings are constructed with walls of brick and rubble inner cores faced with either marble or sandstone locked together with iron dowels and clamps. Some of the walls of the mausoleum are several meters thick.^[20] Over 1,000 elephants were used to ship edifice materials during the construction.^[21] The bricks were fired locally and the sandstone was quarried 28 miles away near Fatehpur Sikri. The white marble was brought 250 miles from quarries belonging to Raja Jai Singh in Makrana, Rajasthan. The jasper was sourced from the Punjab and the jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, 28 types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.^[22] Jean-Baptiste Tavernier records that the scaffolding and centering for the arches was constructed entirely in brick. Legend says that the emperor offered these scaffolding bricks to anyone who would remove them and that at the finish of the structure and they removed within a calendar week. Modern scholars dispute this and consider it much more probable that the scaffolding was fabricated of bamboo and materials were elevated by ways of timber ramps.^[20]

Initial estimates for the cost of the works of 4,000,000 rupees had risen to 5,000,000 by completion. ^[f] A waqf (trust) was established for the perpetual budget of the mausoleum with an income of 300,000 rupees. I third of this income came from thirty villages in the district of Agra while the residual came from taxes generated equally a upshot of trade from the bazaars and caravanserais which had been built at an early stage to the south of the complex. Any surplus would be distributed by the emperor equally he saw fit. As well as paying for routine maintenance, the waqf financed the expenses for the tomb attendants and the Hafiz, the Qur'an reciters who would sit 24-hour interval and night in the mausoleum and perform funerary services praying for the eternal soul of Mumtaz Mahal.^[19]

Fate of Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan belongings a durbar in the public audition hall of his palace

During his reign, Shah Jahan consolidated the Mughul Empire and facilitated its greatest flow of prosperity and stability by centralising the administration and systematising courtroom diplomacy. Increasingly, historiography and the arts became instruments of propaganda. Beautiful artworks or verse expressed and promoted specific state ideologies which suggested that central power and hierarchical society would create residue and harmony for society. Afterwards completion of the Taj Mahal, Jahan's historians mention he visited iii times; presiding over the anniversary of Mumtaz's expiry in 1644, 1645 and 1654 CE (1054, 1055, 1064 AH). When Jahan fell sick in 1657 CE (1067 AH), his son Aurangzeb led a rebellion and publicly executed his brother and heir apparent, Dara Shikoh. Although Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb alleged Jahan incompetent to dominion and put him nether house abort in Agra Fort. Jahanara Begum Sahib voluntarily shared his 8 year confinement and nursed him in his dotage.^[4] ^[23]

In January of 1666 CE (1076 AH), Jahan fell ill with strangury and dysentery. Confined to bed he became progressively weaker until on Jan 31, he commended the ladies of the regal court, to the care of Jahanara. Afterward reciting the Kalima and verses from the Qur'an, he died. Jahana planned a state funeral which was to include a procession with Jahan's body carried past eminent nobles followed by the notable citizens of Agra and officials scattering coins for the poor and needy. In the consequence, Auranqzeb refused such ostentation and Jahan's body was done in accordance with Islamic rites, taken by river in a sandalwood coffin to the Taj Mahal and there was interred adjacent to the body of Mumtaz Mahal.^[23]

Architecture

Precedents

The erection of tombs to honour the expressionless was the subject of a Mughal theological dialogue exemplified by the varied ways in which they built their funery monuments. Orthodox Islam plant tombs problematic because a number of Hadith forbade the structure of tombs as irreligious. As a culture also attempting to accommodate and rule a more often than not Hindu populous, opposition came from their tradition which held dead bodies every bit impure, and past extension, the structures over them similarly impure. All the same for a majority of Muslims, the spiritual power (barakat) of visiting the resting places (ziyarat) of those venerated in Islam was a force by which greater personal sanctity could be achieved. So for many Muslims, tombs could be considered legitimate providing they did not strive for pomp and were seen as a means to provide a reflection of paradise (Jannah) here on world. The ebb and flow of this debate can be seen in the Mughul'southward dynastic mausoleums stretching back to the Tomb of Timur in Samarkand. Hither Timur is buried under a fluted dome and a traditional Persian Iwan is employed equally an entrance. The Tomb of Babur in Kabul is a much more pocket-sized affair where a simple cenotaph, exposed to the heaven, is laid out in the heart of a walled garden.^[24] Humayun's tomb is seen every bit 1 of the most directly influences on the Taj Mahal's design and was a direct response to the Tomb of Timur, featuring a primal dome of white marble, red sandstone facings, a plinth, geometric symmetrical planning, chatris, iwans and a charbagh. Designed by Humayun's son Akbar it set the precedent for Mughal emperor'due south children constructing the mausoleums of their fathers.^[25] Akbar's tomb at Sikandra, retains many of the elements of his father's tomb but possesses no dome and reverts to a cairn open to the sky. The Tomb of Jahangir at Shahdara, Lahore, begun in 1628 CE (1037 AH), only 4 years earlier the structure of the Taj and again without a dome, takes the form of a simple plinth with a minaret at each corner.^[24]

Paradise gardens (Charbagh)

Charbagh in the Bister Fort, most Jaipur, Rajasthan, 1592 onwards, demonstrating how the bones four parts can divided in complex geometric ways

The concept of the paradise garden was one the Mughals brought from Persian Timurid gardens. Information technology was the first architectural expression they made in the Indian sub-continent, fulfilling diverse functions with strong symbolic meanings. Known equally the charbagh, in its ideal form it was laid out as a foursquare subdivided into four equal parts. The symbolism of the garden and its divisions are noted in mystic Islamic texts which describe paradise as a garden filled with abundant trees flowers and plants. Water too plays a cardinal role in these descriptions: In Paradise four rivers source at a central bound or mountain, and separate the garden past flowing towards the central points. They stand for the promised rivers of water, milk, wine and honey.^[26] The centre of the garden, at the intersection of the divisions is highly symbolically charged and is where, in the ideal form, a pavilion, pool or tomb would be situated. The tombs of Humayun, Akbar and Jahangir, the previous Mughal emperors, follow this pattern. The cross axial garden also finds independent precedents within South Asia dating from the 5th century with the purple gardens of Sigiriya in Sri Lanka which were laid out in a similar way.^[27]

For the tomb of Jahan'southward tardily wife though, where the mausoleum is sited at the edge of the garden, a variant of the charbagh is suggested past Ebba Koch; that of the waterfront garden. Developed by the Mughuls for the specific weather of the Indian plains where slow flowing rivers provide the h2o source, the water is raised from the river by animal driven devices known as purs and stored in cisterns. A linear terrace is ready close to the riverbank with low-level rooms set below the main building opening on to the river. Both ends of the terrace were emphasised with towers. The riverside terrace was designed to enhance the views of Agra for the imperial aristocracy who would travel in and around the city by river. Other scholars propose another explanation for the eccentric siting of the mausoleum at the Taj Mahal complex. If the Midnight Garden to the north of the river Jumna is considered an integral part of the complex, then the mausoleum can be interpreted as being in the centre of a garden divided by a real river and thus is more in the tradition of the pure charbagh.^[28] ^[29]

Mausolea

The favourite grade for both Mughal garden pavilions and mausolea (seen as a funery grade of pavilion) was the hasht bihisht which translates from Persian as 'eight paradises'. These were foursquare or rectangular planned buildings divided into nine sections such that a central domed bedroom is surrounded by eight elements. Later developments of the hasht bihisht divided the square at 45 degree angles to create a more than radial plan which often besides includes chamfered corners; examples of which tin can be establish in Todar Mal's Baradari at Fatehpur Sikri and Humayun's Tomb. Each element of the plan is reflected in the elevations with iwans with the corner rooms finding expression through smaller arched niches. Often such structures are topped with chhatris, small pillared pavilions at each corner. The eight divisions and frequent octagonal forms of such structures correspond the eight levels of paradise for Muslims. The paradigm was not confined solely to Islamic antecedents. The Chinese magic square was employed for numerous purposes including crop rotation and also finds a Muslim expression in the wafq of their mathematicians. Ninefold schemes discover detail resonance in the Indian mandalas, the cosmic maps of Hinduism and Buddhism.^[30]

In addition to Humayun'due south tomb, the more closely contemporary Tomb of Itmad-Ud-Daulah provided many influences on the Taj Mahal and marked a new era of Mughal compages. It was built by the empress Nur Jehan for her father from 1622–1625 CE (1031–1034 AH). It is pocket-size in comparison to many other Mughal-era tombs, but so exquisite is the execution of its surface treatments, it has been described equally a jewel box. The garden layout, hierarchal utilise of white marble and sandstone, Parchin kari inlay designs and latticework presage many elements of the Taj Mahal. Information technology is besides interesting to annotation that the cenotaph of Nur Jehan's male parent is laid, off center, to the west of her female parent. These close similarities with the tomb of Mumtaz have earned it the sobriquet - The Babe Taj.^[31]

Minarets

Minarets did non go a common feature of Mughal compages until the 17th century, particularly under the patronage of Shah Jahan. A few precedents exist in the 20 years before the construction of the Taj in the Tomb of Akbar and the Tomb of Jahangir. Their increasing employ was influenced by developments elsewhere in the Islamic world, particularly in Ottoman and Timurid compages. This development has been seen as show of an increasing religious orthodoxy of the Mughal dynasty.^[32]

Hindu precedents

Since the fourth dimension of the Delhi Sultantate (1192-1451) Indo-Islamic architecture had incorporated and reinterpreted many of the traditions, forms and symbollism of both indigenous Hindu architecture with the predominant Islamic architecture. During the Mughal empire, the extent varied according to the current political climate; scant with Babur, extensively with Akbar, only they ruled a land dominated by non-muslims and most buildings were built with Hindu craftsmen and labour nether the direction of Muslim artists and architects. The vegetative tracery, parchin kari work and most patently the lotus dome and finial of the Taj Mahal are all testament to this synthesis.^[33] ^[34]

Concepts, symbolism and interpretations

Under the reign of Shah Jahan the symbolic content of Mughal architecture reached its peak.^[35] Inspired by a poetry by Bibadal Khan ^{[one thousand]} , the royal goldsmith and poet, and in common with most Mughal funerial compages, the Taj Mahal complex was conceived every bit a replica on earth of the house of Mumtaz in paradise. This theme permeates the entire circuitous and informs the design and appearance of all its elements.^[36] A number of secondary principles were too used, of which hiearachy is the well-nigh dominant. A deliberate interplay was established between the building's elements, its surface ornamentation, materials, geometric planning and its acoustics. This interplay extends from what tin exist seen with the senses, into religious, intellectual, mathematical and poetic ideas.^[36] The constantly changing sunlight that illuminates the building reflected from its translucent marble is not a happy blow, it had a metaphoric function associated with the presence of god.^[37]

Symmetry and geometric planning played an important part in ordering the complex and reflected a trend towards formal systematization that was credible in all of the arts emanating from Jahan'southward imperial patronage. Bilateral symmetry expressed simultaneous ideas of pairing, counterparts and integration, reflecting intellectual and spiritual notions of universal harmony. A strict and complex set of implied grids based on the Mughul Gaz unit of measurement provided a flexible means of bringing proportional order to all the elements of the Taj Mahal.^[38]

Hierarchical ordering of architecture is used by most cultures to emphasise particular elements of a design and to create drama. In the Taj Mahal, the hierarchical apply of red sandstone and white marble contributes manifold symbollic significance. The Mughals were elaborating on a concept which traced its roots to earlier Hindu practices, set out in the Vishnudharmottara Purana, which recommended white stone for buildings for the Brahmins (priestly caste) and red rock for members of the Kshatriyas (warrior caste). Past edifice structures that employed such color coding, the Mughals identified themselves with the two leading classes of Indian social structure and thus defined themselves as rulers in Indian terms. Ruddy sandstone likewise had significance in the Persian origins of the Mughal empire where blood-red was the exclusive color of imperial tents. In the Taj Mahal the relative importance of each edifice in the circuitous is denoted by the amount of white marble (or sometimes white polished plaster) that is used.^[36] ^[39]

The use of naturalist ornamentation demonstrates a similar hierarchy. Wholly absent from the Jilaukhana and caravanserai areas, it is used with increasing frequency as the processionary path approaches the mausoleum. Its symbolism is multifaceted, on the one manus evoking a more perfect, stylised and permanent garden of paradise than could be found growing in the earthly garden; on the other, an musical instrument of propaganda for Jahan's chroniclers who portrayed him as an 'erect cypress of the garden of the caliphate' and often used plant metaphors to praise his skilful governance, person, family unit and courtroom. Plant metaphors also find a commonality with Hindu traditions where such symbols as the 'vase of enough' (purna-ghata) can exist found and were borrowed by the Mughal architects.^[xl]

Audio was too used to express ideas of paradise. The interior of the mausoleum has a reverberation fourth dimension (the time taken from when a noise is fabricated until all of its echoes have died away) of 28 seconds providing an atmosphere where the words of the Hafiz, as they prayed for the soul of Mumtaz, would linger in the air.^[41]

Interpretation

The popular view of the Taj as 1 of the world's monuments to a nifty "love story" is born out by the contemporary accounts and nearly scholars have this has a strong basis in fact.^[42] ^[43] ^[44] The building was also used to assert Jahani propaganda concerning the 'perfection' of the Mughal leadership. The extent to which the Taj uses propaganda is the subject of some debate among contemporary scholars. Wayne Begley put forward an interpretation in 1979 that exploits the Islamic idea that the 'Garden of paradise' is also the location of the 'throne of god' on the day of judgement. In his reading the Taj Mahal is seen as a monument where Shah Jahan has appropriated the authority of the 'throne of god' symbolism for the glorification of his own reign.^[45] Koch disagrees, finding this an overly elaborate explanation and pointing out that the 'Throne' sura from the Qur'an (sura2 poetry 255) is missing from the calligraphic inscriptions.^[46]

This catamenia of Mughal architecture best exemplifies the maturity of a style that had synthesised Islamic architecture with its ethnic counterparts. By the time the Mughals built the Taj, though proud of their Persian and Timurid roots, they had come to run across themselves as Indian. Copplestone writes "Although it is certainly a native Indian product, its architectural success rests on its fundamentally Persian sense of intelligible and undisturbed proportions, applied to clean, uncomplicated surfaces."^[25]

Architects and craftsmen

History obscures precisely who designed the Taj Mahal. In the Islamic earth at the time, the credit for a edifice's blueprint was usually given to its patron rather than its architects. From the prove of contemporary sources, it is clear that a team of architects were responsible for the design and supervision of the works, but they are mentioned infrequently. Shah Jahan's court histories emphasise his personal involvement in the construction and it is truthful that, more than whatsoever other Mughal emperor, he showed the greatest interest in edifice, holding daily meetings with his architects and supervisors. The courtroom chronicler Lahouri, writes that Jahan would make "advisable alterations to whatever the skilful architects designed after many thoughts, and asked competent questions."^[47] Two architects are mentioned by name, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri^[1] ^[48] and Mir Abd-ul Karim in writings by Lahauri's son Lutfullah Muhandis.^[14] Ustad Ahmad Lahauri had laid the foundations of the Red Fort at Delhi. Mir Abd-ul Karim had been the favourite architect of the previous emperor Jahangir and is mentioned as a supervisor, ^[h] together with Makramat Khan,^[14] of the construction of the Taj Mahal.^[49]

The exquisite and highly skilled parchin kari work was adult by Mughal lapidarists from techniques taught to them past Italian craftsmen employed at courtroom. The look of European herbals, books illustrating botanical species, was adapted and refined in Mughal parchin kari work.^[l]

Site

16th–17th Century Agra

Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty, created the start Mughal garden known equally Ram Bagh in Agra in 1526CE. Thereafter, gardens became important Mughal symbols of power, changing the accent from pre-Mughal symbols such equally forts. The shift can exist explained in terms of the intoduction of a new ordered aesthetic, an creative expression with religious and funery aspects and as a metaphor for Babur's ability to control the arid Indian planes and hence the land at large.^[51] Babur rejected much of the ethnic and Lodhi built forms on the reverse bank and attempted to create new ones inspired by Persian gardens and royal encampments. Ram Bagh was followed by an extensive, regular and integrated circuitous of gardens and palaces stretching for more than than a kilometer along the river. A high continuous stone plinth bounded the transition betwixt gardens and river and established the framework for future development in the city.^[52]

In the post-obit century, a thriving riverfront garden city developed on both sides of the Yamuna. Subsequent Mughal emperors developed both sides of the river including the rebuiding of Agra Fort, by Akbar, completed in 1573. By the time Jahan ascended to the throne, Agra'due south population had grown to approximately 700,000 and was, as Abdul Aziz writes, "a wonder of the age - as much a center of the arteries of trade both by land and water equally a meeting-place of saints, sages and scholars from all Asia.....a veritable lodestar for artistic workmanship, literary talent and spiritual worth".^[53] ^[54]

Agra became a urban center centred on its waterfront and developed partly eastwards but more often than not westwards from the rich estates that lined the banks. The prime sites remained those that had access to the river and the Taj Mahal was built in this context, simply uniquely, on both sides of the river.

Map

Click map to navigate

About this image

The Taj Mahal complex tin exist conveniently divided into 5 sections. ane. The riverfront terrace, containing the Mausoleum, Mosque and Jawab 2. the Charbagh garden containing pavilions. iii. the jilaukhana containing accommodation for the tomb attendants and two subsidiary tombs 4. The Taj Ganji, originally a bazaar and caravansarai only traces of which are still preserved, and finally, to the north of the river Yamuna, five. the 'moonlight garden'. The bang-up gate lies betwixt the Jilaukhana and the garden. Levels gradually descend in steps from the Taj Ganji towards the river. Gimmicky descriptions of the circuitous listing the elements in order from the river terrace towards the Taj Ganji.^[55]

Dimensional organisation

That the Taj comlex is ordered by grids is self axiomatic from exam of any plan. However, it was not until 1989 that Begley and Desai attempted the first detailed scholastic examination of how the various elements of the Taj might fit into a coordinating grid. Numerous 17th century accounts detail the precise measurements of the complex in terms of the Gaz or zira, the Mughal linear yard, equivalent to approximately 80-92cm. Begley and Desai concluded a 400 gaz grid was used and then subdivided and that the various descrepancies they discovered were due to errors in the gimmicky descriptions.^[56] ^[57]

More than recent research and measurement by Koch and Richard André Barraud suggests a more circuitous method of ordering that relates improve to the 17th century records. Whereas Begley and Desai had used a elementary fixed grid on which the buildings are superimposed, Koch and Barraud institute the layout'south proportions were improve explained by the utilise of a generated filigree system in which specific lengths may be divided in a number of ways such as halving, dividing by three or using decimal systems. They suggest the 374 gaz width of the complex given by the gimmicky historians was correct and the Taj is planned equally a tripartite rectangle of three 374 gaz squares. Unlike modular divisions are and so used to proportion the rest of the complex. A 17 gaz module is used in the jilaukhana, bazaar and caravanserais areas whereas a more detailed 23 gaz module is used in the garden and terrace areas (since their width is 368 gaz, a multiple of 23). The buildings were in turn proportioned using notwithstanding smaller grids superimposed on the larger organisational ones. The smaller grids were likewise used to institute elevational proportion throughout the complex.^[56]

Such obviously peculiar numbers make more sense when seen as part of Mughal geometric understanding. Octagons and triangles, which characteristic extensively in the Taj, have particular properties in terms of the relationships of their sides. A correct handed triangle with two sides of 12 will have a hypotenuse of 17, similarly if it has 2 sides of 17 it's hypotenuse volition exist 24. An octagon with a width of 17 will have sides of exactly 7, which is the basic grid upon which the mausoleum, mosque and Mihman Khana are planned.^[56]

Descrepancies remain in Koch and Barraud's work which they attribute to some figures being rounded fractions, innacuracies of reporting from third persons and errors in workmanship (virtually notable in the caravanserais areas further from the tomb itself).^[56]

Chemical element	length / width / diameter	breadth / depth / side	height	length / width / bore	breadth / depth / side	height
Chemical element	Metres			Gaz
Overall complex	896.1	300.84		1112.v	374
Overall preserved complex	561.ii	300.84		696	374
Taj Ganji	334.nine	300.84		416.5	374
Jilaukhana	165.one-165.23	123.51		204	153
Bang-up gate	41.two	34	23.07	51	42	28.5
Charbagh	296.31	296.31		368	368
Riverfront terrace	300	111.89	8.7	373	138
Mausoleum	56.nine	56.9	67.97	70	70	84
Minaret	5.65		43.02	seven		53.5
Mosque	56.6	23.38	20.three	lxx	29	25-29
All dimensions from Koch, p.258-259 credited to Richard André Barraud

Mausoleum (Rauza-i munauwara)

The focus and climax of the Taj Mahal complex is the symmetrical white marble tomb; a supremely proportioned cubic building with chamfered corners and biconvex recesses known equally pishtaqs. Information technology is surmounted by a large dome and several pillared, roofed chhatris. In plan, it has a near perfect symmetry nigh 4 axes and is arranged in the 'hasht bihisht' form found in the tomb of Humayun. It comprises four floors; the lower basement storey containing the tombs of Jahan and Mumtaz, the entrance storey containing identical cenotaphs of the tombs beneath in a much more elaborate sleeping accommodation, an ambulatory storey and a roof terrace.

Base of operations

Elevations

Interior

The hierarchical ordering of the entire complex reaches its crescendo in the main sleeping accommodation housing the cenotaphs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz. Mumtaz's cenotaph sits at the geometric centre of the building; Jahan was cached at a afterward engagement past her side to the west - an organisation seen in other Mughal tombs of the catamenia such every bit Itmad-Ud-Daulah.^[58] Marble is used exclusively as the base of operations material for increasingly dumbo, expensive and circuitous parchin kari floral decoration as one approaches the screen and cenotpahs which are inlaid with semi-precious stones. The use of such inlay work is oft reserved in Shah Jahani architecture for spaces associated with the emperor or his immediate family unit. In the Taj, the stylised botanical subject area matter; roses, narcissus and tulips (amongst others) were associated with 'The Beloved' in Persianate culture. In this context the beloved may exist both god and the department Mumtaz. The ordering of this ornament simultaneously emphasises the cardinal points and the heart of the chamber with disipating concentric octagons. Such hierarchies appear in both Muslim and Indian civilisation as important spiritual and atrological themes. The sleeping room is therefore an abundant evocation of the garden of paradise. The calligraphic inscriptions in both the sulus and the less formal naskh script, repeat the programmatic theme of the exterior writings, but are profuse hither. Entire chapters are carved on the walls and cenotaphs and tombs, chosen to emphasise the rewards in paradise to the faithful and the fate of the pagan.^[37] ^[39]

Muslim tradition forbade elaborate ornamentation of graves, so the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were laid in a relatively patently bedchamber beneath the inner chamber of the Taj. They are buried on a due north-southward access, with faces turned right (west) toward Mecca. The Taj has been raised over their cenotaphs (from Greek keno taphas, empty tomb). The cenotaphs mirror precisely the placement of the ii graves, and are verbal duplicates of the grave stones in the basement below. Mumtaz's cairn is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber. On a rectangular marble base of operations about one.5 past two.5 thou is a smaller marble casket. Both base of operations and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the hat of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet.

Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side. Information technology is the just asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife'southward, but reflects the same elements: A larger casket on slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy which identifies Shah Jahan. On the lid of this catafalque is a sculpture of a small pen box. (The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funeary icons decorating men's and women's caskets respectively.)

An octagonal marble screen or jali borders the cenotaphs and is fabricated from eight marble panels. Each panel has been carved through with intricate piercework. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid with semiprecious stones in extremely frail detail, forming twining vines, fruits and flowers.

Roof terrace

In a similar manner as the roof of the bully gate, the roof terrace of the mausoleum was intended as a viewing indicate where the rest of the complex, the river and the distant fort might exist viewed. The internal features of the floors beneath, the hasht bihist plan with its v octagonal chambers, are given external expression above in the iv chhatris and the big domes. The pishtaqs extend slightly higher than the surrounding parapet level and contain narrow steps which lead to a narrow walkway along their tops.^[59]

Dome

Two main domes are employed in the mausoleum, a small shallow dome was erected directly over the cardinal chamber and so the large, bulbous, doubled skinned domed which can be seen externally, was erected over that. The lower internal dome is decorated with muqarnas tracery and a sun design at its apex. The external dome rises equally a cylinder from its base and then transitions to a more bulbous profile, at which point twisted rope and arch moulding demark the change. At its noon the dome receives a cap moulding of the traditional Indo-Islamic lotus leaf. The dome is topped with a tall, gilded, bulbous finial with a design simultaneously evoking the hindu lotus and the islamic crescent moon.^[59]

Riverfront terrace (Chameli Farsh)

Plinth and terrace

Minarets

Ane of the four minarets that flanks the Mausoleum.

At the corners of the plinth stand minarets — 4 large towers each 43 meters tall. The towers are designed as working minarets, a traditional element of mosques, a place for a muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into iii equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the belfry is a concluding balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the pattern of those on the tomb. Each of the minarets was synthetic slightly out of plumb to the exterior of the plinth, so that in the outcome of plummet (a typical occurrence with many such tall constructions of the period) the textile would tend to autumn abroad from the tomb.

Jawab and Mosque

The mausoleum is flanked by 2 almost identical buildings on either side of the platform. To the west is the Mosque, to the eastward is Jawab. The Jawab, meaning 'answer' balances the bilateral symmetry of the composition and was originally used as a place for entertaining and accommodation for important visitors. It differs from the mosque in that it lacks a mihrab, a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca, and the floors have a geometric design, while the mosque flooring was laid out with the outlines of 569 prayer rugs in blackness marble.

The mosque's basic tripartite design is like to others congenital by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid-i-Jahan Numa in Delhi — a long hall surmounted by three domes. Mughal mosques of this catamenia divide the sanctuary hall into three areas: a main sanctuary with slightly smaller sanctuaries to either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an enormous vaulting dome.

Garden (Charbagh)

A 360° panoramic view from the "Celestial Pool of Abundance", in the Chahar Bagh "Gardens of Paradise".

The large charbagh (a formal Mughal garden divided into 4 parts) provides the foreground for the classic view of the Taj Mahal. The garden's strict and formal planning employs raised pathways which divide each quarter of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble h2o tank at the center of the garden, halfway betwixt the tomb and the gateway, and a linear reflecting puddle on the Due north-South centrality reflect the Taj Mahal. Elsewhere the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains.^[threescore] The charbagh garden is meant to symbolize the four flowing Rivers of Paradise. The raised marble h2o tank (hauz) is chosen al Hawd al-Kawthar, literally meaning and named after the "Pool of Abundance" promised to Muhammad in paradise where the faithful may quench their thirst upon inflow.^[61] ^[62]

Two pavilions occupy the eastward and westward ends of the cross axis, one the mirror of the other. In the archetype charbargh design, gates would have been located in this location. In the Taj they provide punctuation and access to the long enclosing wall with its decorative crenellations. Built of sandstone, they are given a tripartite form and over two storeys and are capped with a white marble chhatris supported from 8 columns.^[63]

The original planting scheme is i of the Taj Mahal's remaining mysteries. The gimmicky accounts by and large bargain merely with the architecture and but mention 'diverse kinds of fruit-begetting trees and rare aromatic herbs' in relation to the garden. Cypress copse are almost certainly to have been planted being popular similes in Persian poetry for the slender elegant stature of the dearest. By the end of the 18th century, Thomas Twining noted orangish trees and a large plan of the complex suggests beds of various other fruits such as pineapples, pomegranates, bananas, limes and apples. The British, at the end of the 19th century thinned out a lot of the increasingly forested trees, replanted the cypresses and laid the gardens to lawns in their own taste.^[64]

The layout of the garden, and its architectural features such equally its fountains, brick and marble walkways, and geometric brick-lined flowerbeds are like to Shalimar'due south, and advise that the garden may have been designed by the aforementioned engineer, Ali Mardan.^[65]

Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including roses, daffodils, and fruit copse in affluence.^[66] Every bit the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden declined too. When the British took over direction of the Taj Mahal, they changed the landscaping to resemble the formal lawns of London.^[67]

Swell gate (Darwaza-i rauza)

The great gate stands at the n of archway forecourt (Jilaukhana) and provides a transition between the worldly realm of bazaars and caravanserai and the spiritual realm of the paradise garden, mosque and the mausoleum. Its rectangular plan is a variation of the 9-part hasht bihisht plan found in the mausoleum. The corners are articulated with octagonal towers giving the construction a defensive advent. External domes were reserved for tombs and mosques of the time and so the big central space does not receive any outward expression of its internal dome. From the space the Mausoleum is framed along its major axis past the pointed arch of the portal. Inscriptions from the Qur'an are inlaid around the two northern and southern pishtaqs, the southern one 'Daybreak' invites believers to enter the garden of paradise.^[68]

Southern galleries (Iwan Dar Iwan)

Running the length of the northern side of the southern garden wall to the east and west of the cracking gate are galleried arcades. A raised platform with geometric paving provides their base and between the columns are cusped arches typical of the Mughul architecture of the menses. The galleries were used during the rainy season to acknowledge the poor and distribute alms. The galleries terminate at each end with a transversely placed room with tripartite divisions.^[68]

Forecourt (Jilaukhana)

The Jilaukhana (literally meaning 'in forepart of house') was a courtyard feature introduced to Mughal architecture by Shah Jahan. It provided an surface area where visitors would dismount from their horses or elephants and assemble in style earlier entering the principal tomb circuitous. The rectangular area divides north-southward and e-west with an entry to the tomb circuitous through the main gate to the north and archway gates leading to the exterior provided in the eastern, western and southern walls. The southern gate leads to the Taj Ganji quarter.^[69]

Bazaar streets

Bazaar of the Jilaukhana with cusped arches

Ii identical streets lead from the east and west gates to the centre of the courtyard. They are lined by verandahed colonnades articulated with cusped arches behind which cellular rooms were used to sell appurtenances from when the Taj was built until 1996. The revenue enhancement acquirement from this merchandise was used for the upkeep of the Taj complex. The eastern bazaar streets were substantially ruined past the end of the 19th century and were restored by Lord Curzon restored 1900 and 1908.^[seventy]

Inner subsidiary tombs (Saheli Burj)

Two mirror image tombs are located at the southern corners of the Jilaukhana. They are conceived as miniature replicas of the main complex and stand on raised platforms accessed by steps. Each octagonal tomb is synthetic on a rectangular platform flanked past smaller rectangular buildings in front of which is laid a charbargh garden. Some uncertainty exists as to whom the tombs might memorialise. Their descriptions are absent from the gimmicky accounts ^[j] either because they were unbuilt or because they were ignored, being the tombs of women. On the first written document to mention them, the plan fatigued up past Thomas and William Daniel in 1789, the eastern tomb is marked as that belonging to Akbarabadi Mahal and the western as Fatehpuri Mahal.^[71] ^[72]

Northern courtyards (Khawasspuras)

A pair of courtyards is found in the northern corners of the Jilaukhana which provided quarters (Khawasspuras) for the tombs attendants and the Hafiz. This residential element provided a transition betwixt the outside world and the other-worldy delights of the tomb complex. The Khawasspurs had fallen into a state of disrepair past the late 18th century but the institution of the Khadim continued into the 20th century. The Khawasspuras were restored by Lord Curzon as part of his repairs between 1900 and 1908, afterwards which the western courtyard was used equally a nursery for the garden and the western courtyard was used equally a cattle stable until 2003.^[69]

Bazaar and caravanserai (Taj Ganji)

The Bazaar and caravanserai were synthetic equally an integral role of the circuitous, initially to provide the structure workers with accommodation and facilities for their wellbeing, and afterward as a identify for trade, the revenue of which supplemented the expenses of the complex. The area became a small town in its own right during and afterward the building of the Taj. Originally known as 'Mumtazabad', today it is called Taj Ganji or 'Taj Market'. Its programme took the characteristic form of a foursquare divided by two cantankerous axial streets with gates to the iv fundamental points. Bazaars lined each street and the resultant squares to each corner housed the caravanserais in open up courtyards accessed from internal gates from where the streets intersected (Chauk). Contemporary sources pay more than attention to the north eastern and western parts of the Taj Ganji (Taj Market) and it is likely that just this half received imperial funding. Thus, the quality of the architecture was finer than the southern half.^[73]

The distinction betwixt how the sacred office of the complex and the secular was regarded is most astute here.^[73] Whilst the rest of the complex received imperially funded maintenance subsequently its construction, the Taj Ganji became a bustling town and the centre of Agra's economic activity. Information technology has been constantly redeveloped ever since, to the extent that past the 19th century information technology had get unrecognisable as role of the Taj Mahal and no longer featured on contemporary plans and its compages was largely obliterated. Today, the contrast is stark betwixt the Taj Mahal'southward elegant, formal geometric layout and the narrow streets with organic, random and un-unified constructions found in the Taj Ganji. Only fragments of the original constructions remain, near notably the gates. All mode of goods and services could be obtained in the Taj Ganji, it was where "different kinds of merchandise from every land, varieties of goods from every country, all sorts of luxuries aof the fourth dimension, and diverse kinds of necessitities of culture and comfortable living brought from all parts of the world" were sold.^[74] An idea of what sort of appurtenances might have been traded is establish in the names for the caravanserais; the due north western one was known equally Katra Omar Khan (Market of Omar Khan), the northward eastern every bit Katra Fulel (Perfume Market), the southward western as Katra Resham (Silk Marketplace) and the south-eastern equally Katra Jogidas.^[73]

Structures outside the walls

Mosque
Tombs

Waterworks

H2o for the Taj circuitous was provided through a complex infrastructure. It was fatigued from the river past a series of purs - an animal-powered rope and bucket machinery.^[21] The h2o flowed forth an arched channel into a large storage tank, where, by xiii additional purs, it was raised to large distribution cistern above the Taj ground level located to the w of the complex's wall. From here h2o passed into 3 subsidiary tanks and was and so piped to the complex. The caput of pressure generated by the height of the tanks (ix.5m) was sufficient to supply the fountains and irrigate the gardens. A 0.25 m diameter earthenware pipe lies 1.8 m below the surface,^[61] in line with the main walkway which filled the main pools of the complex. Some of the earthenware pipes were replaced in 1903 with bandage iron. The fountain pipes were not connected directly to the fountain heads, instead a copper pot was provided under each fountain head: water filled the pots ensuring an equal pressure to each fountain. The purs no longer remain, but the other parts of the infrastructure have survived with the arches of the aqueduct now used to suit offices for the Archaeological Survey of Republic of india's Horticultural Section.^[75]

Moonlight garden (Mahtab Bagh)

To the north of the Taj Mahal circuitous, across the river is another Charbagh garden. It was designed equally an integral part of the circuitous in the riverfront terrace pattern seen elsewhere in Agra. Its width is identical to that of the rest of the Taj. The garden historian Elizabeth Moynihan suggests the large octagonal puddle in the centre of the terrace would reflect the image of the Mausoleum and thus the garden would provide a setting to view the Taj Mahal. The garden has been beset past flooding from the river since Mughal times. As a event, the condition of the remaining structures is quite ruinous. Iv sandstone towers marked the corners of the garden, only the southward-east one remains. The foundations of 2 structures remain immediately north and south of the large puddle which were probably garden pavilions. From the northern structure a stepped waterfall would have fed the pool. The garden to the north has the typical square, cross-axial plan with a foursquare pool in its heart. To the due west an aqueduct fed the garden.^[76] ^[77]

Notes

a. ^{^} The UNESCO evaluation omits the Taj Ganji and Moonlight garden from its area calculations - the total area with the historic Taj Ganji is 26.95 ha
b. ^{^} Mewar (1615 CE, 1024 AH), the Deccan (1617 and 1621 CE, 1026 and 1030 AH), Kangra (1618 CE, 1027AH).
c. ^{^} In the Mughal empire, inheritance of power and wealth was non determined through primogeniture, just rather past princely sons competing to reach military machine success and consolidate power at courtroom.
d. ^{^} The grandson of Raja Man Singh of Amber and a relative of Shah Jahan through his Bully Uncle Raja Bhagwant Das.^[fourteen]
eastward. ^{^} The Islamic Calendar is lunar and and then the anniversary dates vary when expressed in the Gregorian Calendar.
f. ^{^} In 1637–39 CE (1047–1049 AH), an Indian servant of the Dutch E India company could expect to receive 36 rupees a yr, a mansabdar would receive 9000 rupees a year.
m. ^{^} "May the abode of Mumtaz Mahal be paradise".^[12]
h. ^{^} At that place is some disagreement equally to whether the translation of darogha imarat is 'Superintendent of Buildings' as Begley and Koch fence or 'Chief architect' equally Qaisar contends.^[49]
j. ^{^} 1643 (1053 AH) by Lahouri.^[71]

Citations

↑ ^1.0 ^1.1 ICOMOS informational torso evaluation (English). ICOMOS (1983). Retrieved on 2007-03-21.
↑ Hebbar, Neria Harish (2002 June). King of the Earth: Shah Jahan (English). History of Islam in India. Boloji Media Inc. Retrieved on 2007-07-23.
↑ Asher, p.170
↑ ^4.0 ^4.one Asher, p.171
↑ ^five.0 ^5.1 Koch, p.eighteen
↑ Qazwini. fol. 233a translated by Begley and Desai (1984), p.14
↑ Bloom, J. and Blair, S. (1994). "The Art and Architecture of Islam: 1250-1800". New Haven and London: Yale University Press
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Koch, P.19
↑ ^nine.0 ^9.ane Asher, p.210
↑ Daljeet, Exotic Indian Art
↑ Begley and Desai, 1989 - translating Qazwini, fol. 232b (refol. 233b)
↑ ^12.0 ^12.1 ^12.2 Koch, p.twenty
↑ Koch, p.97 quoting Qazwini
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 ^14.2 ^14.iii Asher, p.212
↑ Koch, p.97
↑ Koch, p.96
↑ Tahkhana Complex (English). Banglapedia - National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (2006). Retrieved on 2007-07-23.
↑ Koch, p.98
↑ ^19.0 ^19.1 Koch ,p.100
↑ ^xx.0 ^xx.1 Koch, p.97
↑ ^21.0 ^21.one Taj Mahal - A symbol of love (English). Advent InfoSoft Pvt. Ltd.. Retrieved on 2007-03-08.
↑ Koch, p.91-92
↑ ^23.0 ^23.1 Koch, p.101
↑ ^24.0 ^24.1 Koch, p.85-88
↑ ^25.0 ^25.1 Copplestone, p.166
↑ Char Bagh Gardens Taj Mahal (English). About Taj Mahal. Retrieved on 2007-07-23.
↑ Koch, p.24
↑ Leoshko, Janice (2002). Book Review: The Moonlight Garden: New Discoveries at the Taj Mahal (English). Persimmon - Asian literature, Arts and Culture. Retrieved on 2007-02-13.
↑ Harkness, p.63
↑ Koch, p.26
↑ Asher p.130-133
↑ Koch, p.180
↑ Asher, p.1
↑ Koch, p.90
↑ Asher, p.250
↑ ^36.0 ^36.1 ^36.2 Koch, p.216
↑ ^37.0 ^37.ane Asher, p.214
↑ Koch, p.104
↑ ^39.0 ^39.1 [i]
↑ Koch, p.218-224
↑ Koch, p.228
↑ Koch, p.6
↑ Lahauri, p.384-9
↑ Kambo, p.275
↑ Begley (1979) p.7-37
↑ Koch, p.225
↑ Koch, p.89
↑ Begley and Desai (1989), p.65
↑ ^49.0 ^49.1 Dunkeld, Malcolm (Ed) (June 2007). Structure history lodge newsletter (English). Chartered Institute of Building. Retrieved on 2007-07-23.
↑ Koch, p.91
↑ Koch (1997), p.143
↑ Petruccioli (2006), p.358-359
↑ Aziz, p.129
↑ Koch, p,23
↑ Koch, p.112
↑ ^56.0 ^56.1 ^56.2 ^56.3 Koch, p.108-109
↑ Begley (1989), p.64-76
↑ Koch, p.152-179
↑ ^59.0 ^59.one Koch, p.177
↑ Taj Mahal - Ultimate epitome of honey
↑ ^61.0 ^61.1 Koch, p.137
↑ Begley, Wayne East. (Mar, 1979). "The Myth of the Taj Mahal and a New Theory of Its Symbolic Meaning". The Art Bulletin 61 (1): 14. Retrieved on 2007-07-09.
↑ Koch, p.138
↑ Koch, p.139
↑ Allan, John [1958]. The Cambridge Shorter History of India (in English). Cambridge: S. Chand, 288 pages. , p.318
↑ The Taj by Jerry Camarillo Dunn Jr
↑ Koch, p. 139
↑ ^68.0 ^68.i Koch, p.126-134
↑ ^69.0 ^69.1 Koch, p.114-120.
↑ Koch, p.116
↑ ^71.0 ^71.i Koch, p.120
↑ Buyers, Christopher (Nov 2006). Bharat, The Timurid Dynasty, Genealogy (English). Retrieved on 2007-07-23.
↑ ^73.0 ^73.1 ^73.ii Koch, p.201-208
↑ Koch, p.201 quoting Lahauri and Kambo
↑ Koch, p.208
↑ Koch, p.56
↑ Leoshko, Janice (2002). Book review - The Moonlight Garden: New Discoveries at the Taj Mahal (English) 1. Persimmon - Asian Literature, Arts and Civilization. Retrieved on 2007-03-02.